Atmospheric cooling of freshwater near the temperature of maximum density

Abstract

We perform three-dimensional direct numerical simulations of surface-driven convection near the temperature of maximum density $\tilde T_{md}$. A dynamic surface boundary condition couples heat flux through the surface to the induced convection, creating a dynamic equilibrium between the surface water temperature and the convection below. In this system, we identified three convective regimes: (1) free convection when the surface water temperature is above $\tilde T_{md}$, (2) penetrative convection when the surface water temperature is below $\tilde T_{md}$ and the convection is actively mixing the fluid layer, and (3) decaying convection when the convection weakens. We then predict the transitions between these regimes. Understanding these transitions is essential for the predicting timing of ice formation in natural systems.