Latest progress on the reduced-order particle-in-cell scheme: I. refining the underlying formulation

Abstract

The particle-in-cell (PIC) method is a well-established and widely used kinetic plasma modelling approach that provides a hybrid Lagrangian-Eulerian approach to solve the plasma kinetic equation. Despite its power in capturing details of the underlying physics of plasmas, conventional PIC implementations are associated with a significant computational cost, rendering their applications for real-world plasma science and engineering challenges impractical. The acceleration of the PIC method has thus become a topic of high interest, with several approaches having been pursued to this end. Among these, the concept of reduced-order (RO) PIC simulations, first introduced in 2023, provides a uniquely flexible and computationally efficient framework for kinetic plasma modelling - characteristics verified extensively in various plasma configurations. In this two-part article, we report the latest progress achieved on RO-PIC. Part I article revisits the original RO-PIC formulation and introduces refinements that substantially enhance the cost-efficiency and accuracy of the method. We discuss these refinements in comparison against the original formulation, illustrating the progression to a "first-order" implementation from the baseline "zeroth-order" one. In a detailed step-by-step verification, we first test the newly updated reduced-dimension Poisson solver (RDPS) in the first-order RO-PIC against its zeroth-order counterpart using test-case Poisson problems. Next, comparing against the zeroth-order version, we examine the performance of the complete first-order RO-PIC code in two-dimensional plasma problems. The detailed verifications demonstrate that the improvements in the RO-PIC formulation enable the approach to provide full-2D-equivalent results at a substantially lower (up to an order of magnitude) computational cost compared to the zeroth-order RO-PIC.