Pressure-mediated crystalline g-C$_3$N$_4$ with enhanced spatial charge transport for solar H$_2$ evolution and photocathodic protection of 304 stainless steels

Abstract

Conjugated polymeric g-C$_3$N$_4$ has emerged as a leading semiconductor for solar-to-chemical energy conversion due to its unique electronic band structure, robust physicochemical stability, and environmental benignity. However, defect engineering-while effective at enhancing visible-light absorption and charge separation-often introduces excessive dangling bonds and lattice disorder, which exacerbate carrier recombination and impair light harvesting. High crystallinity offers a complementary route to improve spatial charge transport, yet strategies that concurrently optimize crystallinity and surface defects remain underexplored. Here we report a pressure-mediated ion thermal synthesis of high-crystalline g-C$_3$N$_4$ (CCN-P) using a NaCl/KCl eutectic salt under elevated pressure. The molten salt facilitates in-plane and cross-plane crystal growth, while applied pressure reduces interlayer spacing and shortens photocarrier pathways. This dual modulation yields CCN-P with balanced surface defects (-CN and -NHx), an electron-trapping resistance (Rtrap) of 11.36 k$\Omega$ cm$^2$ and a photocarrier decay rate constant of 0.013 s$^{-1}$. CCN-P achieves a hydrogen evolution rate of 2168.8 $\mu$mol g$^{-1}$ h$^{-1}$ and delivers 78.5% dark photocathodic protection of 304 stainless steel over 7500 s, outperforming bulk and conventionally crystalline g-C$_3$N$_4$. This straightforward pressure-ion thermal approach provides a versatile platform for tailoring crystalline frameworks and defect distributions in polymeric semiconductors for efficient solar energy conversion.