Sticky Help, Bounded Effects: Session-by-Session Analytics of Teacher Interventions in K-12 Classrooms

Abstract

Teachers' in-the-moment support is a limited resource in technology-supported classrooms, and teachers must decide whom to help and when during ongoing student work. However, less is known about how students' prior help history (whether they were helped earlier) and their engagement states (e.g., idle, struggle) shape teachers' decisions, and whether observed learning benefits associated with teacher help extend beyond the current class session. To address these questions, we first conducted interviews with nine K-12 mathematics teachers to identify candidate decision factors for teacher help. We then analyzed 1.4 million student-system interactions from 339 students across 14 classes in the MATHia intelligent tutoring system by linking teacher-logged help events with fine-grained engagement states. Mixed-effects models show that students who received help earlier were more likely to receive additional help later, even after accounting for current engagement state. Cross-lagged panel analyses further show that teacher help recurred across sessions, whereas idle behavior did not receive sustained attention over time. Finally, help coincided with immediate learning within sessions, but did not predict skill acquisition in later sessions, as estimated by additive factor modeling. These findings suggest that teacher help is "sticky" in that it recurs for previously supported students, while its measurable learning benefits in our data are largely session-bound. We discuss implications for designing real-time analytics that track attention coverage and highlight under-visited students to support a more equitable and effective allocation of teacher attention.