Cryogenics and the use of superfluid helium in high-energy particle accelerators (1980-2000)

Abstract

The period 1980-2000 saw the impressive development of applied superconductivity in high-energy particle accelerators, from single components to long strings of superconducting magnets and high-frequency acceleration cavities. Large and powerful cryogenic systems were designed ancillary to superconducting devices operating generally close to the normal boiling point of helium, but also above 4.2 K in supercritical and below 2 K in superfluid. Low-temperature operation in accelerators also involves considerations of ultra-high vacuum, limited stored energy and beam stability. We recall the rationale for cryogenics in high-energy particle accelerators and review its development over the period of interest, with reference to the main engineering domains of cryostat design and heat loads, cooling schemes, efficient power refrigeration and cryogenic fluid management. In view of its importance and novelty, a specific section is devoted to the developments that led to the LHC at CERN.