Single-material 4D-printed shape-morphing structures via spatially patterned strain trapping

Abstract

A single-step, single-material 4D printing method is developed for programmable structures featuring spatially patterned strain trapping for one-way actuation. This approach enables fabrication on desktop fused filament fabrication 3D printers through a recently developed shape-memory strain programming method, Programming via Printing (PvP), which eliminates the need for secondary post-fabrication programming. Large (up to 50%) and spatially controlled trapped tensile strain programming is achieved by PvP model design, geometric coding, and printing parameter optimization. While contraction naturally arises from printing-induced trapped strain, expansion is introduced via architected lattice designs with patterned strain-enabling a full range of deformation modes. These capabilities, validated at the unit-cell level, are further integrated into larger proof-of-concept structures to demonstrate scalability and practical implementation. This strategy provides an accessible, low-cost, and easily adoptable additive manufacturing approach for diverse functional-material applications.