The Countoscope for self-propelled particles

Abstract

Particle number fluctuations $N(t)$, measured in virtual observation boxes of an image or a simulation, offer a way to quantify particle dynamics when particle tracking is impractical, such as in high-density systems. While traditionally limited to equilibrium diffusive systems, we extend this approach -- named ``Countoscope'' -- to out-of-equilibrium self-propelled particles: Active Brownian (ABPs), Run and Tumble (RTPs), and Active Ornstein-Uhlenbeck Particles (AOUPs). For AOUPs, we leverage their Gaussian statistics to derive a general formula applicable to any Gaussian system. For ABPs and RTPs, we derive the intermediate scattering function (ISF) -- and thus the correlations of $N(t)$ -- using an exact perturbative expansion over the probability density fields, revealing key physical features of the ISF and of the number correlations. Our theoretical predictions for the mean-squared number difference $\langle \Delta N^2(t) \rangle = \langle (N(t) - N(0))^2 \rangle$ match stochastic simulations and exhibit three time-dependent scaling regimes: diffusive, advective, and long-time enhanced diffusive, reflecting the regimes of the mean squared particle displacement. We further uncover limiting laws in each of these regimes that are useful to quantify self-propulsion properties.