Rarefaction-induced inflation and similarity breakdown of hypersonic bow shocks over a circular cylinder

Abstract

Rarefied hypersonic bow shocks over blunt bodies inflate as the Knudsen number increases, but it remains unclear whether this inflation is a simple shift and broadening of one common shock layer or a multi-scale change of the macroscopic and internal-energy fields. We address this question using direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) data for Mach-10 flow over a circular cylinder in argon and nitrogen over \(Kn_\infty \approx 0.01\)--\(1\), together with a Mach-number sweep at \(Kn_\infty=0.01\). At low rarefaction, a ray-based density-gradient ridge gives a reproducible bow-shock location and agrees with an independent schlieren-based shock-wave-detection method. As \(Kn_\infty\) increases, this ridge is replaced by a broad kinetic compression layer, so the high-Knudsen cases are analysed using profile-based standoff and thickness metrics rather than by imposing a visual shock line. The Knudsen- and Mach-number sweeps separate two mechanisms. At fixed \(M_\infty\), the continuum normal-shock density ratio provides a useful low-rarefaction reference compression scale, whereas the measured standoff growth is governed primarily by the kinetic mean free path; the effective density thickness shows an intermediate minimum before increasing in the diffuse regime. At fixed low \(Kn_\infty\), changing \(M_\infty\) mainly changes compression strength and curvature, preserving a coherent attached-layer structure. Density-registered profiles and shock-attached proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) show that, within the present maximum-density-gradient registration, density becomes nearly rank one, whereas Mach number and thermal variables retain independent modal content. Rarefied bow-shock inflation is therefore a coupled compression--relaxation process, not a single-scale rescaling of a continuum-like shock.