Resolving the Bubble Puzzle: Hydrogen Peroxide Formation Precedes Hydroxyl Radicals in Microbubbles and is Governed by Solid-Water Interfaces

Abstract

An alternative explanation is presented for recent reports that attribute sustained chemiluminescence (CL) and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) from electrogenerated microbubbles on steel or copper electrodes in aqueous luminol solutions (over 2-30 V range) to the spontaneous formation of hydroxyl radicals at the gas-water interface. Our experiments with a broad set of electrodes, viz., steel, copper, aluminium, and platinum, reveal that while microbubbles can be electrogenerated on all electrodes, CL is exhibited by steel and Cu only and not by Al and Pt. These observations establish that the gas-water interface of microbubbles is not the site for hydroxyl radical generation (else CL would be recorded in all cases). Complementary quantification of H2O2 in these experiments reveals its electrode dependence as follows: Al > Cu > Steel > Pt. This establishes that depending on the electrode, H2O2 forms first, and in some cases, hydroxyl radicals are observed (i.e., where CL/ECL is seen). Experiments with NMR and EPR spectroscopy revealed that: (i) H2O2 formation occurs only when O2 is present in water; and (ii) while steel and copper generate hydroxyl radicals through 1-electron reduction of H2O2, Al does not promote one-electron reduction of H2O2 to generate hydroxyl radicals, and Pt preferentially promotes disproportionation of H2O2 to H2O and O2. In fact, we demonstrate that H2O2 and hydroxyl radicals can be observed at specific metal-water interfaces even without microbubbles, confirming that the solid surface is the reactive site. Therefore, this work affords electrode-based predictions of whether or not electrogenerated microbubbles would yield CL in luminol solutions and calls into question the notion of spontaneous formation of hydroxyl radicals at gas-water interfaces.