Workplace dependence in urban economies

Abstract

Remote work has fundamentally reshaped urban economic life, and the spatial organisation of activity across cities. However, access to flexible work is distributed unevenly across industries, income groups, and genders, creating disparities in health risks, social mixing, and economic opportunity. Understanding where workplace dependence (WPD) is concentrated is therefore important, yet its distribution across urban areas remains poorly understood. Here we pair fine-grained hourly population data with detailed company records in a large European city to examine how location, industry composition, and socio-economic characteristics shape physical workplace attendance. By comparing workplace activity during periods of low versus high COVID-19 restrictions, we identify the determinants of WPD. We find that while industry and firm productivity are key drivers, the relationship between WPD, income, and gender is highly contingent on distance from the city center. Near the centre, female-majority and income-diverse locations show the highest WPD, consistent with a residual, place-bound service workforce. These findings reveal a spatially contingent 'service trap' at the urban core, extending remote-work inequalities beyond individuals to the urban ecosystem as a whole.