A review of simulation, measurement techniques, and development in chip thermal design

Abstract

As integrated circuits advance toward higher power densities, three-dimensional integration, and heterogeneous packaging, chip thermal management has become a key bottleneck limiting device performance, reliability, and lifetime. This article systematically reviews numerical simulation methods and experimental measurement techniques for chip thermal design, with particular emphasis on the technical challenges associated with multiscale and multiphysics coupling, thermal boundary resistance measurement, and high-heat-flux cooling. We first introduce macro- and device-scale thermal simulation methods, including equivalent thermal-circuit models, the finite element method, and computational fluid dynamics, and discuss the application of phonon transport theory and molecular dynamics at microscopic scales. We then examine the advantages and limitations of infrared thermography, thermoreflectance, Raman thermometry, and embedded sensors. Current limitations include the enormous computational cost, inaccurate multiscale coupling, expensive experimental facilities, and the physical limits of conventional cooling technologies. Finally, we discuss emerging directions, including AI-accelerated thermal simulation, embedded microchannel liquid cooling, two-phase cooling, advanced high-thermal-conductivity materials, and multiphysics co-design, with the aim of advancing chip thermal management toward greater efficiency and intelligence.