Understanding Graphene-Perovskite Interactions: From Flake Chemistry to Crystallisation and Solar Cell Performance

Abstract

Graphene-derivatives are widely employed materials to improve bulk and interface properties of metal-halide perovskite devices. Yet the implications of their flake chemistry and interactions with the perovskite precursors remain unclear. Here, we show that pristine graphene flakes (GF) and more conventional graphene oxide flakes (GOF) are not interchangeable. Density functional theory calculations reveal that GOF interacts more strongly with the perovskite lattice but induces larger structural distortions, stronger interfacial polarisation, and localised gap states. In contrast, GF forms comparatively non-disruptive contacts, a response retained across a wide compositional range. Machine-learning atomistic simulations further show that GF contacts both Pb- and I-containing regions of solvated perovskite nanocrystals, with a strong solvent dependency. Solution spectroscopic characterization indicates that GF additives serve as scaffold for preorganised Pb/I-containing precursors, favouring film crystallisation. In this sense, GF enhances solar cell performance across perovskite compositions, but particularly those facing a more challenging crystallisation. In mixed Sn-Pb perovskite solar cells, GF raises the champion power-conversion efficiency from 21.5\% to 23.7\% with improved storage stability. These results establish pristine GF as a chemically defined additive and connect its atomic-scale interactions with precursor organisation, crystallisation, device performance, and stability.