Uncertainty Quantification for Financial Foundation Models: A Survey

Abstract

Financial foundation models increasingly support workflows spanning financial question answering, disclosure analysis, forecasting, and decision-making. In these settings, uncertainty may concern whether evidence is valid and available at the relevant time, whether an interpretation is justified, which outcomes remain plausible, or which action is preferred under costs and risk constraints. Because these objects arise at different points in a workflow, uncertainty cannot be reduced to confidence in a final output. We introduce a source-aware framework that distinguishes six sources of uncertainty across evidence and context, model and inference, and outcome and action, while treating agentic workflows as the execution layer through which uncertainty can propagate, change form, or be reduced. We develop a mechanism-based taxonomy grounded in how methods construct or verify uncertainty and reliability representations, and use it to assess their applicability across financial task domains. We further map finance-specific empirical studies across the taxonomy and task domains to characterize the current research landscape. Our analysis shows that most reviewed studies address uncertainty in individual parts of financial workflows, with limited work connecting evidence and reasoning reliability to downstream prediction and constrained action. By connecting where uncertainty arises, how it is represented, and how it bears on downstream decisions, this survey provides a unified foundation for studying and evaluating uncertainty in financial foundation models.