Nanoscale silicon sensor - guided new insights into early metabolic response of Escherichia coli to ampicillin

Abstract

Antibiotic killing is often attributed to inhibition of specific cellular targets, yet metabolic processes can strongly influence drug efficacy. However, the relationship between metabolic responses and antibiotic lethality remains incompletely understood. Here, we employed silicon nanowire field-effect transistor (SiNWFET) sensors to monitor real-time metabolic responses of Escherichia coli to ampicillin (AMP). AMP treatment induced a biphasic extracellular pH signature, characterized by rapid acidification followed by alkalization. Metabolomic analyses revealed that the initial acidification resulted from organic acid secretion, whereas the subsequent alkalization was associated with altered amino acid metabolism and formate flux. Using metabolic and respiratory mutants, we found that these extracellular signatures reflected pathway-specific metabolic rewiring that predicted bacterial killing. AMP lethality strongly correlated with ATP dynamics and formate secretion: strains exhibiting larger AMP-induced ATP increases and greater formate secretion showed enhanced susceptibility. In contrast to literature, changes in NADH and NADPH levels did not support redox stress as the primary bacterial-killing mechanism. Together, our findings identify formate metabolism as a key pathway underlying the elevated ATP levels associated with AMP bactericidal activity. These results demonstrate that SiNWFET sensors provide a versatile label-free tool for probing antibiotic mechanisms, rapidly assessing bacterial susceptibility, and potentially guiding antimicrobial therapy development.